modul bahasa inggris

ini adalah salah satu mata pelajaran bahasa inggris yg sampai sekarang masih gw pelajari, kalian juga bisa pelajari kok. tinggal copy-paste aja.

yang ngajarin ini adalh salah satu dosen terfavorit gw loch...
banyak seh dosen favorit gw. cuma yg ini mah is the best...


Ada beberapa langkah yang harus dipahami jika ingin berbicara, menulis bahasa Inggris, dan memahami English textbook dengan benar. Langkah-langkah tersebut sbb:

I. Mengetahui Fungsi to BE
Sering berhadapan dengan to be ketika membaca English textbook dan seringkali terlupakan apa makna to be tersebut To be kalau dipecah menjadi are, am, is untuk bentuk present ,artinya kejadian itu masih berlaku
sampai saat ini sedangkan untukl bentuk past tense-nya was, were yang mana kejadian tersebut tidak berlaku lagi dan hanya merupakan kenangan. To be mempunyai arti yang berbeda-beda tergantung siapa yang mengikutinya,apakah kata kerja (verb), kata benda (noun), dan kata sifat (adjective). Arti to be dan formulanya sbb:

1. Adalah
S + are, am, is, was, were + kata benda (noun)
Jika setelah Subjek diikuti are, am, is, was, were (to be) dan kata benda, maka to be itu artinya “adalah.”

Contoh:
a. He is sole destributor here.
Kita urai kalimat di atas. Mengapa setelah kata he diikuti is? Karena:
1) subjeknya (he) dan kalau S- nya they, to be nya are,
2) sole distributor (distributor tunggal) merupakan kata benda, sehingga perlu to be. Jika frase sole distributor diganti dengan kata kerja bentuk kesatu dan kedua, maka tidak perlu to be (He distributed these goods yesterday).
3) sampai saat ini ‘he’ masih seorang sole destributor, kecuali kalau dia sekarang tidak lagi seorang sole distributor, maka kalimatnya menjadi ‘He was sole distributor’.

b. He was a debt collector at WOM Finance.
Perhatikan kata was yang mempunya arti adalah karena diikuti oleh kata benda (debt collector) namun to be (was) akan berubah makna menjadi “dulu” sehingga kalimat di atas kalau diartikan “Dia dulu seorang penagih di WOM Finance ( sekarang tidak lagi menjadi seorang penagih)

c. Bagaimana kalau berbicara “akan menjadi _NOUN, dapat menjadi ____, seharusnya menjadi ____, harus menjadi_____., ingin nberada _____. Perhatikan rumus di bawah ini:

S + will, shall + be + noun : _____ akan menjadi_______
S + can + be + be + noun : _____ dapat menjadi _______
S + must + be + noun : _____ harus menjadi ______
S + should + be + noun : _____ seharusnya menjadi ______
S + want to + be + noun : _____ ingin menjadi ______


e.g. : I shall be an employee at PT. KH.
One of my friends must be a good marketing manager.
You should be a house keeper, not a driver.
Ani can be a presenter as she is good at communication.
I want to be civil officer.
She is going to be an army.
He will be a professional distributor.

2. Ada atau Berada
S + are, am, is, was, were + adverb of place
e.g. I was in Singapore when I was child.
Where were you this morning? I was at home this morning.
Where is Ani? She is at the office.
Is she at home?

3. Bagaimana kalau berbicara “akan berada _____, dapat berada ____, seharusnya berada ____, harus berada____., ingin berada ________. Perhatikan rumus di bawah ini:

S + will, shall + be + ket. tempat : _____ akan berada _______
S + can + be + be + ket. tempat : _____ dapat berada _______
S + must + be + ket. tempat : _____ harus berada ______
S + should + be + ket. tempat : _____ seharusnya _______
S + want to + be + ket. tempat : _____ ingin berada ______

e.g. : I shall be an employee at PT. KH.
One of my friends must be a good marketing manager.
You should be a house keeper, not a driver.
Ani can be a presenter as she is good at communication.
I want to be civil servant.
She is going to be an army.
He will be a professional cooker.

Contoh:
1) I can be a debt collector
2) Hably must be here right now
3) Ishell will be smart.
Perhatikan, setelah kata can,must, will diikuti oleh “be” bukan are,am, is. Karena, bila setelah modal tidak boleh diikuti oleh kata “to” seperti ‘I must to be here’, dan kata kerja bantu are, am, is, seprti “She must is clever” Kesimpulan bila ada modal tidak boleh diikuti are, am.,is tetapi bila mau diikuti, gunakan be.

4) I am in the office now. (Saya berada di kantor sekarang.)
5) I was in the office this morning. (Tadi pagai, saya berada di kantor.)
6) She wants to be at your hause.
7) There is a letter on my desk.
8) You were at Ani’s house two weeks ago

4. Pelengkap
S + can, must, shall, will, can, must, should, want to + be + adjective : sebagai pelengkap
Maksudnya “be” tersebut hanya sebagai pelengkap. Bila “be” diletakkan antara modal dan adjective, maka be tersebut tidak mempunyai arti, seprti; ada, berada ataupun akan menjadi, tetapi be tersebut tdk mempunyai arti sama sekali, akan tetapi hanya sebgai pelengkap. jika tidak ada be, maka kalimat tersebut tidak benar.

Contoh:
I must be calm to present my paper.( Saya harus kalem untuk mempresentasikan makalah saya.) Anda tidak menulis I must calm atau I must am calm


II. Fungsi to HAVE
Bila akan berbicara “mempunyai, telah atau sudah, dan harus atau ingin menterjemahkan kata have, has, atau had (bentuk lampau),maka harus dilihat siapa pengikutnya: apakah to infinitive (verb 1)? apakah kata benda? dan apakah past participle (verb3)? Lebih rinci, lihat fungsi to have di bawah ini:

1. Mempunyai:
Bila berbicara sudah atau telah, maka rumus yang digunakan:
S + have/has / had + noun: mempunyai.

Contoh:
1) I have five subordinaries and they are at different position.
Artinya: Saya mempunyai anakbuah lima orang dan mereka di posisi yang berbeda-beda. Kata they menggantikan five subordinaries.
2) The company employs 200 workers and it has high profit .
Artinya: Perusahaan itu memperkejakan 200 pekerja dan perusahaan tersebut mempunyai untung yang tinggi. Kata it pengganti the company sehingga tidak mengulang kata the company setelah and, seperti; The company employs 200 workers and the company has high profit .

2. Telah /Sudah
Berbicara sudah atau telah tanpa ada keterang waktu kapan terjadinya, yang pasti sudah terasa hasilnya, sepert; "saya sudah membaca buku itu". Kapan membacanya tidak jelas, namun saya tahu isi buku tersebut. Penulisannya dalam bahasa Inggris sbb: I have read the book.

S + have/ has/ had + V3 : telah/ sudah

Contoh:
1) I have sustained the growth of our branches offices to achieve the target.
Artinya: Saya sudah menopang pertumbuhan untuk mencapai target di cabang kantor kita. Kapan menopangnya? tidak disebutkan. Akan tetapi, bila akan menyebutkan kapan kegiatan itu dilakukan, maka menggunakan keterangan waktu seperti; last week ( last …), two weeks ago ( …… ago), yesterday dan kata kerja yang digunakan bentuk kedua.
Contoh:
2) I decided to leave the meeting last Monday as there was no final decision.
Artinya: Saya memutuskan untuk meninggalkan pertemuan Senin kemarin karena tidak ada keputusan akhir.

3. Harus
Bila mengatakan "harus" sering menggunakan must atau be + kata kerja pertama menggunakan to ( I am to leave now) saya harus meninggalkan sekarang. Namun juga bisa menggunakan fungsi to have.

S + have/ has/ had + to infinitive : harus
e.g. She has to report her achievement. Dia harus melaporkan pencapaiannya.
All members of staff, including top managers, have to be in the meeting on time.

4. Causative ( meneyebabkan orang lain melakukan sesuatu)
S+ have/has + something + V3
Contoh:
1. I have my management system improved.
Artinya: Saya telah memperbaiki sistemmanajemen saya.. Pengertian kalimat tersebut, bukan saya yg memperbaiki tetapi orang lain yg memperbaiki, saya hanya menyuruh.
2. I have may car repaired: Saya telah memperbaiki mobil saya ( orang lain yang memperbaiki, mungkin mekanik atau orang lain)

III. Membuat kalimat APAKAH

Bahasa Indonesia, kalimat peratanyaan dimulai dengan "apakah" dan”apa”, keduanya memelikimakna yang sama. Namun dalam bahasa Inggris, kalimat pertanyaan yang sepadan dengan “apakah” dimulai dengan are,am, is, was, were dan do does, did. Adapun formulanya sbb:

1. Do, Does, Did + S + Verb + ?
e.g. Do you know how to raise about 80 million for the company?
Artinya: Apakah anda tahu bagaimana untuk menaikan perndapatan kira-kira 80 million untuk perusaahaan?

Penjelasan: Mengapa kalimat pertanyaan itu dimulai dengan Do? Karena :
Subjeknya you, kalau subjeknya She maka menggunakan does.
Kata know merupakan kata kerja dan Pertanyaan itu masih berlaku.

Did she go to Jakarta yesterday? Apakah dia pergi ke Jakarta kemarin. Mengapa pakai did? karena kejadiannya sudah lampau (kemarin) dan lagi kata go merupakan kata kerja. Pende kata, jika membuat kalimat pertanyaan yang dimulai dengan kata “apakah” mulailah dengan Do, Does,atau Did jika setelah subjek itu kata kerja. Tetapi jika setelah subjek itu diluar kata kerja (noun, adjective ) mulailah dengan are,am, Is, Was, atau Were seperti di bawah ini.

2. Are, Am, Is, Was, Were + S + diluar kata kerja
Are you good at marketing? apakah anda hebat dalam marketing?
Penjelasan kenapa pakai are? karena; 1) subjeknya you, 2) good at marketing bukan kata kerja.
Is your financial report suitable that expected? Apakah alaporan keuangan anda sesuia dengan yang diharapkan?


3. Membuat kalimat APAKAH di tengah kalimat
Bagaimana bila kata apakah itu posisinya ditengah-tengah kalimat, apakh masih menggunakan are,am,is do, does? Misalkan, Sya tidak tahu apakah jajaran manajer bisa memperbaiki manajemen atau tidak.. Tentu tidak bisa mengatakan “I don’t know are the boards of manager can improve the management system or not”. Jika menemukan kasus semacam ini gunakan kaata if atau whether. Jadi kalimat ynag betul “I don’t know whether the boards of manager can improve the management system

IV. Membuat kalimat tanya dengan WH2-QUESTIONS
(What, Where, When, Why, How, Who, Whose, Which)

No Wh2-
Questions AV S
1 I like the old one
2 I don’t like the old one
3 do you like the old one?
4 What do You like?
What machine do you like?
5 Ani lives In Bandung
6 Ani doesn’t live In Bandung
7 does Ani live In Bandung
8 Where does Ani live?
9 Where will You be tomorrow

10 She came late yesterday
11 she didn’t come late Yestreday?
12 did she come late Yesterday?
13 How did she come late Yesterday?
14 Why did She come late Yesterday?
15 When did She come late?
How long will she complete this job?
How often does Ishell come to the office?
16 How can you be?

17 John works in a bank
18 John doesn’t work in a bank
19 does John work in a bank?
20 Why does John work in a bank?
21 Who works in a bank?
22 Where does John work?

23 She Is 10 minutes late
24 She Is not 10 minute late
Is She 10 minute late
25 Why Is She 10 minutes ate?

26 Ani Will choose the red one
27 Ani won’t choose the red one
28 will Ani choose the red one
29 Which one will Ani choose?
30 It Is mine
31 It isn’t mine
32 is it yours?
33 Whose is It?
34 Whose pen is It?


Terjemahkam ke dalam bahasa Inggris:

1. Mengapa anda datang terlambat kemarin?
2. Bagaimana itu bisa terjadi?
3. Dimana anda menyimpan kunci saya?
4. Seberapa sering anda mengecek laporan keuangan?
5. Yang mana yang akan anda beli?
6. File siapa yang berada di atas meja itu?
7. Berapa lama anda akan tinggal di Jakarata?
8. Kapan mereka meneyelesaikan tugasnya?
9. Bagaiman anda bisa memperbaiki laporan keuangan itu jika tidak belajar?
10. Tipe mesin apa yang akan anda beli jika anda mempunyai uang?
11. Saya seorang karyawan PT. Sinar.
12. Saya tinggal di Bandung.
13. Mereka telah menyerahkan laporan bulannan.
14. Dia harus berada di kantor besok pagi.
15. Saya harus menukar mesin lama dengan mesin baru sekarang juga.
16. Bisakah anda menganalisa laporan keuangan setiap bulan?
17. Apakah mereka membuat kesalahan dalam membuat laporan?
18. Apakah dia tidak hadir di pertemuan kemarin?


V. Bagaimana mengenali Subject?
Berbicara, menulis atau menterjemahkan tidak terlepas dengan subjek. Lkalu apa saja yang bias digunkan sebagai subjek Mungki selama ini yang dikenal hanya I, You, We,They,She,He tetapi masih ada yang lainnya yang bisa digunakan sebagai subjek, sbb:

1) Kata benda
You must keep staff motivated, especially when things get difficult.
2) Bentuk ………ING (ing form)
Analysing the financial report should be performed monthly.
3) To infinitive, kata kerja bentuk pertama yong menggunakan
To analyse the financial report need two hours.
4) There, sebagai subject tidak diartikan "disana" tetapi sebagai pelengkap
There are options given.
5) IT
It is difficult time to sell new product.

Bentuk Ing form setelah preposisi:
setelah preposisi, seperti: after, before, in, on, at dll datang bentuk kata kerja atau to be, maka kata kerja atau to be tersebut berubah menjadi ing form.
contoh:
1. These goods have been checked before being sent.
2. I will give them reward after knowing their sales achievement




VI. Passive Voice
Kita sering berbicara dalam bahasa Indonesia dengan menggunakan bentuk pasif seperti: di, sedang di, telah/sudah di, belum di, harus di, dapat di, akan di, apakah di?, dimana di?, mengapa di?, bagaiman di? dst. Ternyata dalam bahasa Inggris pun ada bentuk-bentuk semacam itu. seperti rumus di bawah ini:

a. S + are, am, is, was, were + Verb 3 + (by) + Object :di
di
One of my staffs repaired the old machine the last week (active)
The old machine was repaired by one of my staffs the last week (passive) .
1. Lip stick is always dominated by L'OREAL
2. Lip sticks are always dominated by L'OREAL
3. Lip stick was dominated by L'OREAL the last year
4. Lip sticks were dominated by L'OREAL the last year

Penjelasan
Kenapa kal. no.1 pakai is : pertama, lip stick-nya tunggal, kalau lip stiknya jamak seperti no. 2 , maka pakai are., kedua ada kata always yang menyatakan bahwa sampai saat ini masih berlaku ( maksudnya produk lip stik masih didomonasi oleh L'OREAL Namun jika lip stick itu tdak lagi didominasi oleh L'OREAL dan hanya merupakan sejarah saja, maka kalimatnya seperti no. 3 dan 4. ketiga karena bentuk pasif. Sedangkan kata always mempunyai sobat seperti: never. often, seldom, usually, sometimes, sehingga kata-kata ini bisa menempati posisi kata always. Namun bila keterangan waktu ditambahkan pada no.1&2, maka keterangan waktu yang digunakan sbb: every …(bisa every time, every day, dst), now and then (kadang-kadang) karena kalimat 1&2 bentuk present. sedangkan keterangan waktu untuk no. 3&4 seperti: last …(bisa lastweek, last sunday, dst), …. ago ( bisa two weeks ago, two hours ago, dst) karena bentuk past tense.


b. S+ are, am, is, was, were + being + Verb 3 + (by) + O: sedang di.
Sedang di
Sedang di mempunyai dua pengertian, yaitu: sedang di pada saat ini yang bila diikuti dengan keterangan waktu, maka keterangan waktu tersebut sbb: now, at the present time (waktu saat ini)
Contoh: The board managers are discussing new policy company now.(active)
New policy is being discussed by them now.(Passive)
dan sedang di pada saat itu yang bila diikuti ketrangan waktu, maka ditandai dengan keterangan waktu at the time.)
Contoh:
1) When you came to my house, your proposal was being discussed.
2) Your order was being delivered at the time.

Bila ada suatu kejadian yang terjadi bersamaan diwaktu lampau, maka kejadian yang pertama menggunakan bentuk sedang me (S+was, were + V-ing) bila bentuk aktif dan sedang di (rumus poin b di atas) bila bentuk pasif dan kejadian kedua menggunakan bentuk past tense ( bentuk lampau). Poin c no.1 di atas merupakan contoh, mana kejadian yang pertama antara diskusi dengan Anda datang ke rumah ku?, ternyata kejadian yang pertama diskusi dulu dan kejadian kedua Anda datang ke rumah ku, maka kejadian yang pertama gunakan bentuk past continues tense dan bentuk kedua gunakan past tense.
Contoh: Ketika pesanan anda dikirm, anda memutuskan untuk membatalakan. Duluan mana antara pesanan anda dikirim dan Anda memutuskan untuk membatalkan. Jelas duluan pesanan Anda.lalu diikutii oleh Anda memutuskan untukmembatalkan. Maka kejadian yang pertama bentuk past continuous tense dan kejadian kedua bentuk past tense,seperti di bawah ini:
When your order was being delivered, you decidec to cancel.
kejadian pertama kejadian kedua

sedangkan untuk pemakaian are, am is , was, were sama seperti poin a di atas: are mengikuti bentuk jamak yang sering ditandai dengan huruf s (items), is mengikluti bentuk tunggal, sedangkan was mengikuti bentuk tunggal namun kejadian sudah berlalu dan were mrngikuti bentuk jamak dan juga peristiwanya sudah berlalu.

c. S+ have, has + been + Verb 3 + (by) + Object : telah/ sudah di
telah/ sudah di …….
The marketing manager has sold new products exceed the target (active)
New products have been sold by the marketing manager (him) ex ceed the target (passive).
bila kita bicara sudah di atau belum di maka rumus yang digunakan poin c. hanya has mengikuti bentuk tunggal (she, he, it, Hably) sedangkan have mengikuti bentuk jamak.
Contoh:
1. These products have been delivered by him.
2. This product hasn't been delivered by him.


d. S+ shall, will, should , would+ be+ Verb 3 + (by) + O : akan di
akan di ……….
Contoh:
1. They shall deliver these goods by the end of this month (active)
2. These goods shall be delivered by them by the end of this month.
Shall dan will (bentuk present) sedangkan should dan would bentuk past tense, bisa digunakan untuk sembarang subject dan kepastian dilakukan belum tentu karena masih tahap rencana. oleh karena itu bila rencana itu pasti dilakukan maka gunakan rumus:


e. S + is, are, was, were + going + to be + V3 + (by): akan di
akan di
Contoh:
These product are going to be deliverd the next Monday.
sedangkan keterangan waktu yang mengikuti bentuk akan: tomorrow, next …(next week, next Sunday, dst), … to go (two days ago, an hour to go, dst). … to go berarti yang akan datang, sehingga an hour to go berarti satu jam yang akan datang. Dan untuk penggunaan was dan were disesuaikan dengan pertanyaan: apakah subjeknya bentuk jamak atau tungga? apakah kejadiannya sudah berlalu?


f. S + can, could+ be + Verb 3 + (by) + O : dapat di
dapat di …..
Contoh:
1. We can create new style of marketing strategy (active)
2. New style of marketing strategy can be created.(passive)

g. S + must + be + Verb 3 + (by) + O : harus di …
harus di …….
Contoh:
1. You must distribute these goods through the world.(active)
2. These goods must be distributed through the world. (passive)
Bentuk lampau dari must, yaitu had to
These product had to be distributed through the word

h . Are, am, is, was, were + S+ Verb3 + (by) + O + ?: apakah …di
apakah … di
Contoh:
1. Did you close the meeting yesterday? (active)
2. Was the meeting closed yesterday? (passive)

i. Shall/will akankah …. di
Can + S + be+ Verb 3 +(by)+ O+? :dapatkah …. di
Must haruskah … di
Contoh:
1. Shall our company produce new product? (active)
2. Shall new product be produced by our company? (passive)

Artikan kalimat di bawah ini:
1. Laporan ini harus diserahkan kepada pimpinan secepat mungkin.
2. Barang-barang ini telah dipak dan dicek sebelum dikirim.
3. Pesanan anda ditolak karena anda tidak memberi uang muka.
4. Apakah product ini diexport ke Jepang?
5. Haruskah pertemuan dibatalkan karena pimpinan kita tidak hadir?
6. Barang ini akan dikirim ke mana?
7. Siapa yang akan diijinkan untuk meninggalkan pertemuan?
8. Mengapa tawaran kita ditolak?
9. Dimana data-data itu disimpan?
10. Seberapa sering kesesuaian laporan dicek kembali dibersihkan?
11. Where are the applicants interviewed?
12. Where were the applicants interviewed yesterday?
13. Who will be dismissed?
14. Which one is going to be exported?
15. When were these items delivered?
16. what kinds of regulations will be applied?


VII. DEGREES OF COMPARISONS

Tingkat perbandingan dalambahasa Inggris ada tiga, yaitu:
Tingkat positive as_____ as : se

Tingkat lebih : sartu atau dua suku kata tambahlah ___ er dan jika dibandingkan tambahlan than ____.dan untuk yang lebih dari suku kata tambahlah more____ dan jika dibandingkan tambahlah than ______.

Tingkat Paling : satu atau dua suku kata tambahlah the _____ est _____ of/ in_____. dan bila lebih dari dua suku kata, tambahlah The most _____ of/ in _________ .

Comparative and Superlative Forms of Adjectives and Adverbs
1. One syllables adjective
Positive Comparative Superlative
dark darker than the darkest
old older than the oldest
tall taller than the tallest
strange stranger tahn the strangest
bright brighter than the brightest
new newer than the newest

Contoh: Heni is as tall as Ani and Ani is shorter than Maska, so Maska is the tallest of them (Ani and Heni.)

2. Two syllable adjective
Bentuk comparative digunakan more, dan untuk bentuk superlative digunakan most.
boring more boring than the most boring
careful more careful than the most careful
confused more confusses than The more confused
doubful more doubful the most doubful
famous more famous athe most famous
Contoh:
The red one is as important as the blue one.
The red one is more important than the blue one.
The most important one is how to solve our problem.

kata sifat yang terdiri dari dua suku kata dan berakhiran dengan –y, maka untuk bentuk comparative digunakan –er, dan untuk bentuk superlative digunakan –est. Akhiran –y terlebih dahulu diganti dengan –i.
Contoh:
Busy busier than the busiest
Easy easier the easiest
Happy happier the happiest
Heavy heavier the heaviest

Kata sifat yang terdiri dari dua suku kata dan berakhiran dengan –er, maka untuk bentuk comparative digunakan –er atau more, dan untuk bentuk superlative masing-masing menggunakan more dan most.

Clever cleverer than the cleverest
More clever than the most clver
Simple simpler than the simplest
More simple than the most simplest
3. Adjective with three or more syllable
Kata sifat yang terdiri dari tiga atau lebih suku kata, maka untuk comparative dan superlative masing-masing menggunakan more and most.

Contoh:
Frightening more frightening than the most frightening
Important more important the most important
Interesting more interesting the most interesting
Responsible more responsible the most responsible

4. Irreguler forms of Adjective
Bad worse than the worst
Far farther than the farthest
Good better than the best
Little less than the lest
Many/ much more than the most

5. – Ly Adverbs
Adverbs yang berakhiran dengan –ly, maka untuk bentuk comparative digunakan more dan untuk superlative digunakan most.
Contoh:
Carefully more carefully the most carefully
Clearly more clearly the most clearly
Quickly more quickly the most quickly

6. Adverbs that do not end in –ly
Adverb yang terdiri dari satu atau du suku kata, maka untuk comparative digunakan bentuk –er, dan untuk superlative digunakan bentuk –est.
Contoh:
Close closer than the closet
Fast faster than the fastest
Hard harder than the hardest

7. Irreguler forms of adverbs
Badly worse than the worst
Far farther than the farthest
Well better than the best.


Contoh:
11. An essay test is more difficult than an objective test.
12. An essay test is harder than an objective test.
13. An essay test is easier difficult than an objective test.
14. An essay test is the most difficult.
15. An essay test is the harderst.
16. An essay test is the easiest.
17. This ice cream is better than the other brands.
18. The ice cream is the best of all.
19. We finished the test the most rapidly of all
20. The more you review, the easier the patterns will be.
21. The prices are more expensive than those at a discount store.


VIII. Yang

Bila berbicara "yang" dalam bahasa Inggris yang terlibat kata that, who, whom, which, akan tetapi kata-kata itu mempunyai fungsi masing-masing.
Contoh:
1. I thanked the woman who helped me. Who digunakan untuk orang, maksudnya sebelum who adalah orang bukan something yang berarti "yang". jadi kalimat di atas bererti "Saya berterimakasih kepada wanita yang membantu saya. Namun posisi who tersebut bisa diganti dengan that dan which seperti contoh di bawah ini, sedangkan who tidak bisa menempati posisi that dan which.
2. I thanked the woman that helped me. (which= used for things)
3. The mouse which is on the table is mine.(that= Used for both people and things)

Lalu kata "yang" tersebut bisa dikembangkan menjadi: yang di …, yang telah me……, yang telah di ………, yang akan di, …., yang harus di…, dan yang dapat di …..

Contoh:
1. People + that, who, which + are, am, is , was, were +V3: yang di
The woman who was dismised is my friend: Wanita yang dipecat itu adalah teman saya.

2. Something + that, which + have, has + been+V3: yang telah di
The goods which have been sent to Jakarta are broken. Barang- barang yang telah dikirim ke Jakarta itu rusak.

3. Something + that, which + shall, will + be +V3: akan di
I believe the goods which shall be solg are at good condition.
Pada dasarnya, ini merupakan kombinasi kata that, which, who dengan bentuk passive.

4. The mouse that is on the table is mine.
5. A professional programmer who(m) I saw was Mr. Adi
6. I know the man whose a computer was stolen.
7. He building where he lives is very old.
8. I’ll never forget the day when I met you.

IX. Noun Clause (Klausa Nomina)
A noun clause is used as a subject and a object.
Contoh:
1. I don’t know where she lives.
2. I couldn’t hear what he said.
3. Do you know when they arrive?
4. I don’t know who she is.
5. I wonder whose house that is.
6. What she said surprised me.
7. I don’t know whether/if she will come.
8. I think that he is a good programmer.

Jika kata what, where, who, whose, that when diletakkan di tengah kalimat, maka setelah wh-2 tersebut langsung subjek, bukan kata kerja bantu. Contoh no. 4, bukan I don’t know where is she tetapi setelah where harus subjek dulu, jadi seperti no.4 tetapi kalau kelompok wh-2 digunakan sebagai kalimat tanya dan diletakkan di awal kalimat, maka setelah wh- 2 datang kata kerja bantu. Misal where is your file?, bukan where your file is? When did you complete your report? Bukan When you completed your report?

Perhatikan dialogue di bawah ini

You seem a bit upset – why is that?
Well, you see, I applied for a job that I saw advertised last month. But you didn’t get it?
No, I phoned first and then I wrote a longer leter. And the letter that I got back was just a photocopy ! It said that the job that I wanted had already been given to someone inside the company.
But you thought that it was still vacant?
Yes, the person who spoke to me on the phone told me the post was vacant.
How annoying?

Instead of that we can use which; instead of who we can use that . If, and only if, the subordinate clause (In italics in the examples) has a subject within it, we can omit who or that.

Is everything is OK with our order?
No, the documents (that/which) you mailed to us last week haven’t arrived.
Can I discuss the matter with someone else, please?
No, I’m afraid the person who/that knows about this is not available right now.

Whom is more common in formal writing than in conversation.
We might write:but we’d say:
The person to whom you spoke was … The person you spoke to was ..
The people with whom I am working .. The people I’m working with …
The man from whom I received the letter.. The man I got the letter from ..

Non Identifying Relative Clause
These are used to give more information about a known person or thing. They are more common in writing than in speech – again, notice the use of commas:

Alex, who wrote to you about this, is no longer wit our firm.
Getting a good job, which everyone has a right to, is not easy.
The application form, which is enclosed with this letter, must be returned to us by April 24.

Please telephone Maska, whose extension number is 999.
Mr Gay, to whom you spoke yesterday, is our Personnel Manager.
Three directors of PT. STAR are discussing the financial situation of their company. Marga is the firm’s chairman; his brother Maska, managing director; Ira is company secretary.

VII. Mengenali bentuk kata benda abstrak
Kata benda nyata, seperti table, teacher mudah dikenali dan bila berhubungan dengan kata sifat, maka posisinya, kata sifat dulu, baru kata benda (adj + noun). Contoh: smart worker, hard worker, dsb. Akan tetapi bagaimana mengenali kata benda yang abstrak (tdk dpt disentuh), seperti: penjelasan (explaination), pencapaian (achivement) dsb. Bila dalam bahasa Indonesia mempunyai ciri pe …..an, ke ………...an sedangkan dalam bahasa Inggris mempunyai cirri yang berakhiran dengan:
____ ment develop (v) menjadi development (noun)
achieve (v) menjadi achievement (noun)
agree (v) menjadi agreement (noun)
____ ship leader (noun) menjadi leadership (noun)
member (noun) menjadi membership (noun)
____ nce accept (v) menjadi acceptance (penerimaan)
confident (adj.) menjadi confidence (noun) keyakinan
____ty/ y difficult (adj) menjadi difficulty (kesulitan)
deliver (v) menjadi delivery (noun)
____ion decide (v) menjadi decision (n)
explain (V) menjadi explaination (n)
____ness good (adj) menjadi goodness (n)
careless (adj) menjadi carelessness (n) kesembronoan

jadi,akhiran tersebut di atas mempunyai padanan dalam bahasa Indonesia PE ….AN, KE….AN lalu bagaimana aplikasinya dalam kalimat? Meskipun kata-kata yang berakhiran dengan ion, ty dsb merupakan kata benda, tetapi tidak bisa dipasangkan dengan subjek: I, You, We, They, She, dan He seperti ‘I am development’ jika diterjemahkan ‘saya pemgembangan” meskipun penulisannya sudah sesuai dengan aturan bahwa kalau subjek ketemu dengan kata benda, maka antara subjek dan kata benda tersebut perlu kata kerja bantu, namun untuk kata benda abstrak tidak bisa. Contoh lain “ she is decision”, ‘dia keputusan’ seharusnya kalimat itu “ I decide” atau ‘My decision”. Jadi kata benda abstrak tersebut bisa mengikuti : My, Our, His, Her, Their, Its. Contoh, My sales achiemeny is exceed the target. Kemudian, bila kata benda abstrak ketemu dengan kata benda, maka gunakan penghubung of. Contoh, “The development of our marketing strategy tend to achieve its perfection”. “The letter of agreement has been signed”. Letter (noun), agreement (noun).
Mengenali bentuk kata sifat
Setelah mengetahui kata benda, maka harus mengetahui kata sifat, sehingga bisa dipadukan antara kata sifat dengan kata benda yang mana posisinya adjective + noun. Kata sifat yang selama ini dikenal seperti: lazy, clever dsb. Lalu apa ciriciri kata sifat itu? Ciri-ciri kata sifat berakhiran dengan:
_____ al technology (n) -------technological (adj)
practice (n)-----------practical (adj)
_____ ent differ (v)--------- -different(adj) perbedaan
confident (adj) yakin
_____ ive act (v)--------- active (adj)
produce (v)---- productive (adj)
____ able negotiate (v)-----negotiable (adj) able (dapat di), un….able (tdk dpt di)
accept (v)--------- unacceptable (adj) tdk dpt diterima
____ less care (v)----------- careless (adj) tdk peduli (sembrono)
hope (v)----------hopeless(adj) akhiran less berarti ‘tdk’.(putus asa)
____ ful care (v)--------careful (adj)

jadi, kata yang berakhiran ent, ive dsb merupakan kata sifat. Sekarang kita kombinasikan antara kata sifat dengan kata benda di atas. Contoh “perkembangan tekology sering digambarkan sebagai revolusi teknolgi”, “Technological development is often described as tecnological revolusion. Tecnological merupakan kata sifat yang berakhiran denan al, sedangakan development kata benda dengan cirri berakhiran ment, maka posisinya adj+noun. Coba terjemahkan kalimat ini, “sebagai seorang sales yang aktif, dia selalu mempunyai banyak aktivitas, jika tidak, dia akan putus asa dan akhirnya akan mengambil tindakan yang sembrono” langkah pertama yang dilakukan, identifkasi dulu kata benda dan kata sifat dulu, missal active (adj), action (n), careless (adj), hopeless (adj). Setelah itu padukan kata sifat dengan kata benda (posisi kata sifat mendahului kata benda). Jadi kalimat tersebut “As an active sales man, he always has many activities, if not, he will be hopeless and finally, he will careless action”.

Untuk lebih lanjut lihat contoh di bawah ini yang sudah sediakan kata asal sebelumnya, lalu kata pokok itu mengalami perubahan. Seperti no. 1 kata pokoknya ‘employ’ merupakan kata kerja yang berarti ‘memperkerjakan’ dan anda lihat perubahannya dalam kalimat berikutnya.

1. EMPLOY
In an area of high unemployment people are desperate to find jobs.
Every employee of the firm is entitled to 10% discount.
Her employer gets very angry if she uses the phone too much.
I am looking for temporary employment during the summer holidays.
2. ENGAGE menggunakan
The line is engaged so I’ll have to try again later.
Cancel all my engagement for the rest of the day, please.
3. EXPENSE biaya
It’s expensive to send the goods by air but they’re needed urgently.
They offered her Rp. 100.000 plus expenses
Unfortunately expenditure on the project was much more than expected.
His expense claims are being looked at by the Chief Account.
4. EXPLAIN menjelaskan
If you read the explanatory .leaflet, everything should be clear.
We’re waiting for an explanation of his behavior in the meeting.

Untuk no 5 dan seterusnya, anda lihat jawabanya di bawah
5. EXTEND memperpanjang
We have decided to agree to their request for …………. credit.
Could I speak to Miss. Maska, please? I think it’s …….. 004
The factory was ………….. damaged in the fire.
To some ……. I agree with her conclusions.
6. FINANCE membiayai (verb), keuangan (noun)
Her …………….. adviser is convinced the project will be a success.
If the company is ………….. sound we might consider taking it over.
7. GROW tumbuh, bertambah
There is a ………… awareness of the need to improve productivity.
The government is worried about the ……….. in public expenditure.
8. IMPRESS kesan (noun), mengesankan (verb)
It’s important to create a good ……….. when meeting clients.
The results from our new French subsidiary are very ….
I’m afraid she was ……….. by our presentation.
9. INDUSTRY
In this high-tech world ………….. espionage is on the increase.
Mr. Fred, a prominent ……… will head the committee of inquiry.
In some of the more ………… countries pollution is a big problem.

10. INFLATE membumbung
I’ve no intention of paying such …………… prices!
At the moment ……….. in running at 20%
The government must take steps to halt the ………… spiral.
11. INFORM
Please let me know if you need any more …………
I enjoyed her talk. It was very ……………
I’m afraid you’ve been …………….. She no longer works for us.
12. INSTRUCT
The boss has left … that she’s not to be distributed.
I can’t make head nor tail of this ………… manual1
13. NTRODUCE
The chairman made some ……….. remarks and then she gave her talk.
I’d like to welcome Jane, who I am sure , needs no ………
14. INVEST
These shares have given me a good return on my …..
Small ………… were advised to hold on to their shares.
15. KNOW
We need somebody with a good working ………… of French.
Our company is virtually ………….. abroad.
She’s obviously very …………….. as far as marketing is concerned.
16. LEGAL
It’s ………….to sell such goods without a proper permit.
They questioned the ……….. of the company’s action.

Kunci jawaban no. 1-16
1. Unemployment, employee, employer, employment
2. Engaged, engagements
3. Expensive, expenses, expenditure, expense
4. Explanatory, explanation
5. Extended, extension, extensively, extent
6. Financial, financially
7. Growing, growth
8. Impression, impressive, unimpressed
9. Industrial, industrialist, industrialised/zed
10. Inflated, inflation, inflationary
11. Information, informative, misinformed
12. Instructions, instruction
13. Introductory, introduction
14. Investment, investor
15. Knowledge, unknown, knowledgeable
16. Illegal, legality


17. Accept menerima
I am sorry, but this arrangement is totally ………………….to. us.
I' ve just received their letter of ………………..so we can go a
head.
18. Act bertindak
The unions have threatened to take industrial …………
It' s been very ……………………….. day on the stock exchange.
The R&D departement seems full of …………….. at the moment.
19. Add menambah
We will be bringing out several ……………….. to our product line.
There is an …… bonus if I exceed my sales target by more than 10%.
20. Analyze menganalisa
We will need a detailed cost ……before giving final approval.
Most ………………………….think we're in for a difficult time.
21. Apply mengaplikasikan
Unfortunately we can't interview every …………………………….
I sent my letter of ……………….and they phoned me the next day.
The regulations are not ……………………..when there are fewer than 10 employees.
22. Assist
We will need some financial ……………………………..to enable us to buy more stock.
He was in a meeting so I spoke to the …….. ………..manager.
23. Attract menarik
One of the ……………….of the offer is the free training course.
They were offering a very …salary so of course I was interested.
24. Commerce perniagaan
There are so many …………………vehicles on the road these days!
I am afraid the scheme is not …………….viable.
As well as newspaper advertising, we plan a series of TV ………….
25. Connect
My …………….flight didn't leave until 10 o'clock.
We sent them letter in ………….. with their offer of an agency.
She has some useful ……………….. in the hotel trade.
26. Contract
The …………….has told me the office will be ready by next month.
We are …..obliged to provide adequate security for the shipment.
27. Direct
I enclose a map and ………………to help you to find our office.
The board of …….will make the final decision about the scheme.
I found the company by looking in the local trade ………………
I always deal ………………with the manufacturer.
There has been another ….from head office about photocopying.
28. Decide
He will never make a good manager. He is so …………..
A ……………on the factory is expected soon.
29. Differ membedakan
Installing air conditioning has made all the ……………..
We have decided to try a …………….supplier his time.
We will have to agree to …….I still think it would be better to go by road.

30. Distribute
He's the sole ………..in this area, so we're forced to buy from him.
The increase in petrol prices will push up our ………………costs.
31. Economy
We must ………………….on electricity, so switch off those lights.
All those wonderful …haven't found a solution to your problems.

Kunci jawaban no.17-31

Unacceptable (adj)
Acceptance (n) penerimaan
Action (n)
Active (adj)
Activity (n) aktivitas
Additions (n) penjumlahan
Additional (adj) tambahan
Analysis (n) analisa
Analyst (n) analis
Applicant (n) pelamar
Application (n) lamaran
Applicable (adj) dapat dipakai
Assistance (n) bantuan
Assistant (n) pembantu
Attractions (n)pertunjukkan.acara
Attractive (adj) menarik
Commercial (n) iklan
Commercially (kk)
Commercialised (kki) menglomersilkan
commercials
connecting (n)
connection (n) in c with berkenaan dengan
connections
contractor (n)
contractually (kk)dengan perjanjian
directions (n) petunjuk
directors (n)
directory (n) petunjuk
directly (kk) secara langsung
directive (n) intruksi
indesicisive (adj)bimbang
decision (n) keputusan
difference (n) perbedaan
different (adj) berbeda
differ (v) membedakan
distributor (n) penyalur
distribution (n) penyaluran
economise (kki) berhemat, menghemat
economist (n) ahli ekonomi

Translate these sentences into English:
1. Proposal Anda tidak bisa diterima karena tidak memenuhi persyaratan yang telah ditetapkan oleh pemimpin projek.
2. Daerah indusri ditetapkan di pinggiran kota sedangan daerah pendidikan dilokasikan di kota.
3. Bantuan keuangan yang menarik akan membantu pemerintah dalam mengatasi harga barang yang tidak stabil.
4. Seandainya, Anda diterima di perusahaan ini, lalu ada perusahaan lain menawarkan gaji yang libih menarik dan lebih besar, apakah anda mau pindah atau tidak?Jika begitu, mengapa?

Reading 1

A. Reading

Main Memory: RAM and ROM

The main memory of a computer is also called the ‘immediate access store’, as the as distinct from any storage memory available on disk (1) ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………................RAM and ROM, both contained in electronic chips connected to the main board of the computers.
RAM stands for ‘Random Access Memory’ and is the working area of the computer, that is, the basic location where the microprocessor store the required information. It is called ‘ Random Access’ because the processor can find information in any cell on memory address with equal speed, instead of looking for the data in sequential order 2) …………………………………… so it is lost when the machine is turned off. Therefore if we want to use this information later on we have to save it and store it on disk. When running an application in the storage device (the floppy or hard disk and transfers temporary copy of the application to the RAM area. Consequently, (3) .............
……………………………………………………………………………………………………….. if we want to increase the performance of a computer, when several applications are open at the same time or when a document is very complex.
The RAM capacity can be sometimes can be expanded cy adding extra chips. These are usually contained in Single In-line Memory Modules or SIMMs, which are installed in the motherboard of the computer.
We can designate a certain amount of RAM space as a cache in order to store information that an application uses repeatedly. A RAM cache may speed up our work, but it means that we need enough internal memory or special cache card. ROM is an acronym for ‘Read-Only Memory’, which implies that the processor can read and use the information stored in the ROM chip, but cannot put information into it. (4) ……..
……………………………………………………………………………………..including instructions and routines for the basic operations of the CPU. These instruction are used to start up the computer, to read the information from the keyboard, to send characters to the screen, etc they can be changed and are not erased when the power is turned off. For this reason, the ROM section is also referred to as firmware.


B As we have seen, there are three types of memory used by computers: RAM, ROM and storage memory. Look through this list of features and decide which type of memory they refer to.

1. Any section of the main memory can be read with equal speed and case.
2. It is available in magnetic, optical and video disks.
3. A certain amount of this memory can be designated as 'cache' memory to
store information in applications that are used very'. frequently
4. It stores basic operating instructions, needed by the CPU to function correctly
5. Memory which can be expanded by adding SIMMs of 1 NIB, 2 MB, 4 MB or other major increments,
6. Information is permanent and cannot be deleted.
7. You can save and store your documents and applications.


C. Vocabulary quiz
In groups of three, write answers to these questions. The winners are the group that answers the most questions correctly in four minutes.

1. What are the main parts of the CPU?
2. What is RAM?
3. What memory section is also known as ‘firmware’?
4. What information is lost when the computer is switched off?
5. What is the typical unit used to measure RAM memory and storage memory?
6. What is the meaning of the acronym SINIM ?
7. What is a megahertz?
8. What is the ALU? what does it do?
9. What is the abbreviation for 'binary digit`
10. How can we store data and programs permanently?

D. Your ideal computer system

1. Make notes about the features of the computer that you would like to have.

CPU: Speed ........ Floppy disk drives …………..
Minimum/maximum RAM Monitor: ……………. *
Hard disk: ........ Software: …………….

2. Now describe it to your partner.

Useful expressions:
It has got ...
It's very fast. It runs at ...
The standard RAAM memory is ……..and it is expandable ……………
The hard disk can hold...
As far as the disk drive,
[need a Super VGA monitor because ..........
Reading 2


THE MAJOR PURPOSES OF ACCOUNTING SYSTEM



A. Vocabulary

Translate these words or phrases into bahasa Indonesia:

account manage coordinate
framework provide decide
occur charge refine
effect precedent outsourcing
track previously scare
financial statements compesate require
earn gross margin


Reading Passage

A
ccounting is a major means of helping managers (a) to administer each of the activity or functional areas for which they are responsible, and (b) to coordinate those activities or functions within the framework of the organization as a whole. Accounting provides information for three major purposes:

Routine internal reporting for the decision of managers. Such information is provided for decisions that occurs with some regularity. For example, an oil company such as Texaco makes daily planning decisions on the price they charge retail outlets (such as service stations) for refined oil. Daily reports on the gross margin Texaco earns for refined oil is one input into these pricing decisions. As a second example, Marriot monitors weekly report (covering items such as labor and energy) at each of its hotels as parts of its cost control practices.

Nonroutine internal reporting for the decisions of managers. This information effects decision that occur irregurally or without precedent. For example, planning decision by Xerox to have an independent company manage its information technology function (that is, outsourcing this function) included analysis of cost data that were specifically collected for that decision. Xerox had no previously made decision of this type. As a second example, consumer products company (such as H.J. Heinz Company) may design a special cost tracking system to manage the cost of implementing a recent product recall due to an unprecedented safety care.

External reporting to investors, government authorities, and other outside parties on the organization’s financial position, operations, and related activities. This information is used by some regulatory bodies such as Financial Accounting Standards Board or Internal Revenue Service. In other cases, the information is used by managers in other organisation in their decision making. For example, a company may provide its financial statements to a potensial new supplier who is assessing the financial risk of selling on credit instead of cash. A second example would be the financial statement that a movie company, such as Twentieth-Century Fox, provides to screen stars whose compensation includes a percentage of movie revenue profit.

Each major purpose of accounting often requires a different way of presenting or reporting the information in an accounting system. An ideal data base (sometimes called a data warehouse or inforbarn) consists of small detailed bits of information that can be used for multiple purposes. Accountants combine or adjust (“slice or dice”) these dat to answer the questions from particular internal or external users.

From:George Foster, Cost Accounting


B. Comprehension

Answer these Questions:
1. What are the main aim of accountin system in helping managers?
2. What does “Each major purpose of accounting often requires a different way of presenting or reporting the informatation in an accounting system” mean?
3. What is meant by Routine internal reporting, Nonroutine internal reporting,and Nonroutine internal reporting?

C. Summary

Drawing the conclusion and the main idea of the text above.


D Translation

Traslate these sentences into English:
1. Tujuan utama dari accounting system adalah untuk membantu para manager dalam memecahkan beberapa masalah sehingga dalam mengambil kebijakan tidak terlalu berisiko.
2. Laporan keuangan bulanan harus diserahkan kepada direktur utama sebelum akhir bulan.sebelum menjadi tanggung jawab seorang
3. Sejauh yang menyangkut keuangan, saya tidak bisa bisa berbuat banyak, dengan kata lain, saya menyerah.


Reading 3


THE TOTAL COMPUTING ENVIRONMENT

A Vocabulary

Translate these words or phrases into bahasa Indonesia:

Describe develop significant
Suggest adapt convergence
Apply identify available
Overlap interface constitute
Define execute convert
Convey tend intricacies
Compute diver inhibited


B Reading Passage

Reading and comprehending this text


The development and use of computers is often described as a technological revolution in the way that the development of manufacturing processes was an industrial revolution. Both these revolutions have been the result of major advances, and both have significantly changed the way that large numbers number of people work.

Goldstine, in history of the early years in the development of computers, suggested some conditions that are necessary for progress.

The development of radical new machines always comes about because some inspired person sees how to adapt a new technology … and thus to make a major advance in the state of the arts. It is usually the convergence of two very different concept. One is technology … the other is the recognation of the importance and necessity for the advance [Goldstine, 1972)

Applying this concept to the computing environment, we can say these conditions translate to a convergence of the three major technological areas shown as circles in Fig. 1.1

• The identification of need, characterized by the applications for which the computer is used – the User applications (1)
• The availability of a physical technology that will provide an effective vehicle for the applications – the Computer hardware (2)
• The development of a procedure for using the technology to implement the applications – the Computer software (3)


FIGURE 1 The convergence of need and two major computing technologise.


The three lens-shaped areas formed by the overlap of each pair of circle in the figure represent the interfaces between the major technological areas and constitute technological areas in their own right.

• The language translator (e.g., for Pascal, C, Basic, Fortran) provide away for thr programmer to implement the application. They are the interface between the user and the system. The translator for the given language convert the programmer’s statements into information that can be understood by the computer.
• The computer’s instruction set represent the interface between the software formulation of the application and the computer hardware. The computer uses these instructions to defines the sequence of operations it will execute for the given program.
• The data representations form the interface between the application and the computer. The convey various information, such as the types and ranges of numbers that will be used.

The three –sided area that is formed by the overlap of all three circles represents the operating system. The operating system coordinate program interaction, manages the computer’s various hardware and software resources, and does the input/output operations.

Computer are so common and new advances are now being announced so often that we tend to forget it was not always so. The entire computer industry is less than half a century old, but it is built on a foundation of technology that required thousand s of years to develop.

Computer would have been impossible without a language to describe what we are doing, number systems to support our computations, and mathematics to describe our computational procedures. All these took many, many years to develop, and each provides real examples of the premise that advances in technology often result from the merging of a variety of diverse concepts. Conversely, an advance can be inhibited by the lack of a suitable conceptual foundation or defined need.


From: Larry L.Wear
An Introduction to Hardware and Software SDesign


C Comprehension

Answer these Questions:
1. What is computer used for?
2. What is the technological revolution?
3. What is this concept indicated to? (line 16)


Reading 4

A Reading Passage

WHAT IS A BASIC FILE SYSTEM?


A basic file system is the only software that interfaces directly with the peripheral devices attached to the system. The BFS knows how to transfer block of data to an from a device. The function of a basic file system is sometimes referred to as physical I/O. This is because it deals with the physical reading and writing of block of data on the peripheral devices. However, the BFS does not understand the content and meaning of the data being transferred.

Sometimes, the BFS is considered to be part of the operating system on the machine. This is primarily because the operating system usually contains the core software that must exist for users to run the system. Since all user utilize I/O to one degree or another, the BFS is packaged as part of the operating system.

Users and computer system are need a BFS for the following reason:
• To provide a common interface to perform block I/O. This frees users from having to know and understand the device characteristics of each of the devices connected to the system. Similarly, it allows users to write programs to solve their own needs and not have to be connected with the intricacies of the hardware they happen to be using.
• To provide a centralized control program to ensure that the devices connected to the system are being allocated and scheduled properly, in other word, to guarantee that all users are able to get their jobs done without interfering with any other program in the system.
• To provide a central resource to ensure data integrity by providing error recovery and exception handling for all users.

(Adapated from:File Systems, Design and Implemetation,116)

B. Translation
Translate the text above into Indonesia



Reading 5

A. Reading Passage


MULTINATIONALS AND THE THIRD WORLD

Big companies – like Coca-Cola and Ford have set up subsidiaries in many developing countries. How can the subsidiaries benefit these countries? Is this kind of investment always useful?

Multinationals are large international companies which produce goods in several countries. Some well-known ones are Ford, Shell, Coca-Cola, Sony and Unilever. Their turn over is huge, being greater in some cases than the national income of countries such as Switzerland or the Netherlands. Because they are so big they attract a lot of attention. Usually their business methods are carefully watched by foreign governments.

People are particularly interested in their attractive in poor and developing countries. They ask the question. How have multinationals improved the economies of these countries? In reply, a manager working in a multinational will say something like this:

‘Well, for a start, we provide the capital which poor countries need for their economic growth. The point I’m trying to make is that our capital, together with local savings, finances their industries. Another thing, we share aur technology with local business – we introduce our scientific and technical methods to them. And they increase the productivity of their workers.

Don’t forget also that we produce a wide variety of goods. And let’s face it,we employ thousands of people all over the world. No one can accuse us of not paying good wages. So, I think you will agree, we’re responsible for raising living standards.’

Critics of multinationals do not accept such arguments. They say that the big corporations are not major supplier of capital. In Latin Amirica, for example, multinationals have mostly used capital provided by local banks and investors and have not brought in capital from the United States and Europe.because of this, there is shortage of money to finance local business. Foreign firsm have taken the lion’s share of the available capital

The critics agree that multinationals introduce new technology. However, it is often unsuitable for developing countries. The imported technology is too expensive and complicated. It has developed for industrial societies, not for poor countries. In agriculture, for instance, most countries do need tractors, which are expensive to buy and operate. They need better hoes .

Another advantage of the new technology is that it will probably reduce jobs. Generally it is labour saving. This is because it comes from the United States and Europe where wage costs are high. Poor countries can do without such technology – they have large numbers of workers looking for employment.

Two example prove this point. The building industry used to provide many jobs in the Third World. Now it employs fewer new worke new workers because cranes, bulldozer and other labour saving machinery are replacing men. And in Latin Amirica bigger farms are using expensive imported machinery to increase production-but employing fewer anf fewer workers.

B. Vocabulary
Set up, mendirikan sunsidiaries, cabang2 well-known, terkenal
Turn over, penghasilan huge, besar attract, menerik
Improve, memperbaiki provide, menyediakan grrowth, pertumbuhan
Increase, menaikan employ, mempekerjakan raise, menaikan
Unsuitable, tidak sesuai crane, derek replace, mengganti

C. Translate the Text above into Indonesioa


Reading 6

A. Reading Passage

Programming Languages


Unfortunately, computers cannot understand ordinary spoken English or any others natural language. The only language they can understand directly is called machine code: central processors operate on codes which consist of a series of binary digits (1s and 0s). In this form, the instructions are said to be in machine code.

However, machine code as a means of communication is very difficult to write. For this reason, we use symbolic languages that are easier to understand. Then, by using special program, these languages can be translated into machine code. For example, the so-called assembly languages use abbreviations such as ADD,SUB, MPY to represent instructions. These mnemonic codes like labels easily associated with the items to which they refer.

Basic languages, where the program is similar to the machine code version, are known as low- level language. In these languages, each instruction is equivalent to a single machine code instruction, and the program converted into machine code by a special program called an assembler these language are still quite complex and restricted to particular machines.

To make the programs easier to write and to overcome the problem of communication between different types of machines, higher- level languages were designed such as BASIC, COBOL, FORTRAN or PASCAL. These languages are all problem-oriented rather than machine-oriented and can all be converted into the machine codes of different types of computers. Programs written in one of these languages (known as source programs) are converted into a lower-level language by means of a compiler (generating the object program). On compilation, each statement in a high level language is generally translated into many machine code instructions.

People communicate instructions to the computer in symbolic languages and the easier this communication can be made the wider the application of computers will be. Scientist are already working on Artificial Intelligence and the next generation of computers may be able to understand human languages.


B. Answer these Questions:
1. Do computers understand human languages?
2. What are the differences between low-level and high-level languages?
3. What is an assembler?
4. What is the function of compilers?
5. What do you understand by the terms source program and object program?
Reading 7

A. Reaading Passage


1. Write a list of as many uses of the computer, or computer applications, as you can think of.
2. Now read the text below and underline any applications that are not in your list.


What can computer do?

Computers and microchips have become part of our everyday lives: we visit shops and offices which have been designed with the help of computers, we read magazine which have been produced on computers, we pay bills prepared by computers. Just picking up a telephone, and dialing a number involves the use of a sophisticated computer system, as does making a flight reservation or bank transaction.

We encounter daily many computers that spring to life the instant they’re switched on (e.g. calculators, the car’s electronic ignition, the timer in the microwave, or the programmer inside the TV set), all of which use chip technology.

What makes your computer such a miraculous device? Each time you turn it on, it is a tabula rasa that, with appropriate hardware and software, is capable of doing anything you ask. It is a calculator machine that speeds up financial calculations. It is an electronic filing cabinet which manages large collection of data such as customers’ lists, accounts, or inventories. It is a magical typewriter that allows you type and print any kind of document – letters, memo or legal documents. It is a personal communicator that enable you to interact with other computers and with people around the world. If you like gadgets and electronic entertainment, you can even use your PC to relax with computer games


B. Language work: The present simple passive

Look at the grammar hints in the box below and then read the sentences. Fill in the blanks with the correct form of the verbs in brackets.

Example: Houses (design) ....with the help of computers.
Houses are designed with the help of computers.

1. Various terminals (connect) . to this workstation.
2. Microcomputers (know) …………….. as ‘PCs’ .
3. 'Magazines (typeset) ……………… by computers.
4. When a particular program is run, the data (process) …………..by the he computer very rapidly.
5. Hard disks (use) ....for the permanent storage of information.
6. The drug detecting test in the Tour de France (support) …… by computer
7. All the activities of the computer system (coordinate) ................ by the Central Processing Unit.
8. In some modern systems information (hold) in optical disks.



Reading 8

A. Reading Passage


What is a computer?

Computers are electronic machines which can accept data in a certain form, process the data and give the result of the processing in a specified format as information.

Three basic steps are involved in the process: first, data is fed into the computer’s memory Then, when the program is run, the computer performs a set of instructions and processes the data. Finally, we can see the results (the output) on the screen or in printed form.

Information in the form of data and program is known as software, and the electronic and mechanical parts that make up a computer system ae called hardware. A standard computer system consist of three main section: the Central Processing Unit (CPU), the main memory and the peripherals.
Perhap the most influential component is the Central Processing Unit. Its function is to execute program instructions and coordinate the activities of all the other units. In a way, it is the ‘brain’ of the computer. The main memory hold the instructions and data which are currently being processed by the CPU. The peripherals are the physical units attached to the computer. They include storage devices and input/ output devices.
Storage devices (floppy or hard disks) provide a permanent storage of both data and programs. Disk drives are used to handle one or more floppy disks. Input devices enable data to go into the computer’s memory. The most common input devices are the mouse and the keyboard. Output devices enable us to extract the finished product from the system. For example, the computer shows the output on the monitor or prints the results onto paper by means of a printer.
On the rear panel of the computer there are several ports into which we can plug a wide range of peripheral – modems, fax machines, optical drives and scanners.



B. Use the Information in the text to help you match the terms in the box
with the appropriate explanation or definition below.

Software peripheral device MONITOR
Floppy disk HARDWARE INPUT
OUTPUT Central Processing Unit Port


1. The brain of the computer
2. Physical parts that make you up a computer system.
3. Program which can be used on a particular computer system.
4. The information which is presented to the computer.
5. Results produced by a computer.
6. Hardware equipment attached to the CPU.
7. Visual display unit.
8. Small device used to store information. Same as ‘diskette’.
9. Any socket or channel in a computer system into which an input/ output device may be connected.



Reading 10

A. Reading Pasage
English Computer text


1. Spell checkers can be used to compare words in the program’s dictionary to those used in the user’s document. The spell checker points out any words it cannot match, notices the user and allows them to make any changes; it sometimes even suggests possible correct spellings.

Like a conventional thesaurus, this database of words contains definitions and suggestions of words with similar and opposite meanings. A word may be spelled correctly but still be wrong (too instead of two, for instance). This is a good first step at proofing a document because it can find many common errors, but users will still need to proofread documents to ensure complete accuracy.

2. Many word processors include an online thesaurus with which users can look up different words to use in similar instances. Their power comes not from knowing every grammatical rule, but from questioning the writer about certain parts of the text. Some even include information about pronunciation and histories of evolving meaning.

3. Grammar checkers are applications that attempt to check more than just spelling. They count words in sentences to flag possible run-on sentences. They look for words that show possible conflicts between verbs and subjects and they offer advice about corrections. Grammar checkers are a step beyond spell checkers, but they are still not a substitute for a human editor. However, this does not mean that all of the words in the document are spelled correctly. This gives the writer another chance to think about what he or she has written; the computer can alert writers to problems that wouldn’t be obvious to them otherwise.

(Text adapted from Understanding Computers, by N. Shedroff et al. Sybex. 1993)


Typically, a mouse is a palm-sized device, slightly smaller than a pack of cards. On top of the mouse there are one or more buttons for communicating with the computer. A ‘tail’ or wire extends from the mouse to a connection on the back of the computer.

The mouse is designed to slide around on your desktop. As it moves, it moves an image on the screen called a pointer or mouse cursor. The pointer usually looks like an arrow or I-bar, and it mimics the movements of the mouse on your desktop.

What makes the mouse especially useful is that it is a very quick way to move around on a screen. Move the desktop mouse half an inch and the screen cursor will leap four inches. Making the same movements with the arrows keys takes much longer. The mouse also issues instructions to the computer very quickly. Point to an available with the cursor, click on the mouse, and the option has been chosen.

Mice are so widely used in graphics applications because they can do things that are difficult, if not impossible, to do with keyboard keys. For example, the way you move an image with the mouse it to put he pointer on the object you want to move, press the mouse button and drag the image from one place on the screen to another. When you have the image where you want it, you release the mouse button and the image stay there. Similarly, the mouse is used to grab one corner of the image (say a square) and stretch it into another shape (say a rectangle). Both of these actions are so much more difficult to perform with a keyboard that most graphics programs require a mouse.

The buttons on the mouse are used to select items at which the mouse points. You position the pointer on an object on the screen, for example, on a menu or tool in a paint program, and then you press the mouse button to ‘select’ it. Mice are also used to load documents into a program: you put the pointer on the file name and double-click on the name - that is, you press a mouse button twice in rapid succession.